BSOG 171
Indian Society: Images and Realities
IGNOU BSOG 171 Free Solved Assignment 2024
BSOG 171 Free Solved Assignment July 2024 & Jan 2025
Assignment A
Q 1. Examine the elements that have played a role in unifying Indian civilization
Ans. India, one of the oldest living civilizations in the world, has witnessed the rise and fall of countless empires, seen numerous invasions, and embraced a rich variety of customs, languages, and religions.
Despite its vast diversity, Indian civilization has maintained a remarkable sense of unity throughout its long history.
This unity is not merely political or geographical but deeply cultural and spiritual.
Several elements—ranging from geography and religion to language, philosophy, and socio-political institutions—have played a crucial role in knitting together the multifaceted fabric of Indian civilization.
To begin with, the geography of India has been one of the most powerful unifying forces. BSOG 171 Free Solved Assignment 2024
The Himalayas in the north have served as a natural barrier, shielding the subcontinent from invasions and isolating it from the rest of Asia.
Similarly, the oceans in the south, east, and west have given India a distinct territorial identity.
Within this physical boundary, the mighty rivers such as the Ganga, Yamuna, Saraswati (now believed to be extinct), Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri have nurtured civilizations for thousands of years.
The river Ganga, in particular, has been venerated not just as a source of life but also as a sacred entity that connects people across regions and belief systems.
This geographic continuity has allowed trade, pilgrimage, and cultural exchanges across different parts of the subcontinent, enabling a sense of collective identity.
Another powerful element of unity is religion and spirituality. India has been the birthplace of several major world religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. BSOG 171 Free Solved Assignment 2024
Despite regional variations in practices, festivals, and rituals, these religions share a common philosophical foundation—belief in karma, rebirth, and the pursuit of spiritual liberation (moksha or nirvana).
This shared spiritual goal has created a common thread that ties together communities across different regions.
The pilgrimages to sites like Varanasi, Bodh Gaya, Amritsar, Rameswaram, and Shirdi, where devotees from all over the country congregate, reflect this pan-Indian religious unity.
Even the epics—Ramayana and Mahabharata—revered in every corner of India, have played a monumental role in shaping a shared cultural and moral ethos.
Language, too, has been a significant binding force.
While India is known for its linguistic diversity with over a thousand dialects and 22 official languages, the widespread use of Sanskrit in ancient times helped create a shared intellectual and spiritual culture.
Sanskrit was not just the language of the Vedas and Upanishads but also the medium of communication for philosophy, science, mathematics, and law.
Even today, many Indian languages—be it Hindi, Bengali, Marathi, or Kannada—draw heavily from Sanskrit in their vocabulary and grammatical structure.
Later, Pali and Prakrit also played similar roles, especially in the spread of Buddhism and Jainism across the subcontinent.
In modern times, Hindi and English have functioned as link languages, facilitating communication among people from different linguistic backgrounds and helping forge a sense of national unity. BSOG 171 Free Solved Assignment 2024
Philosophy and shared systems of thought have also played a deep role in unifying Indian civilization. The Indian mind has historically been inclined toward contemplation, tolerance, and synthesis.
The ancient Indian philosophy accommodated diverse viewpoints through debates, discussions, and texts like the Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, and the works of philosophers like Shankaracharya and Buddha.
This openness to difference allowed the peaceful coexistence of various sects and schools of thought, from Advaita Vedanta to Buddhism, from Bhakti to Sufism.
This intellectual culture encouraged a sense of respect for diversity and a belief in the oneness of existence, which helped maintain social harmony even amidst differences. BSOG 171 Free Solved Assignment 2024
Socio-political institutions, particularly during ancient and medieval periods, contributed to the cultural unity of India.
The concept of ‘Dharma’—a moral code of conduct—was recognized across all regions and classes, serving as a common ethical framework.
The caste system, though criticized today for its discriminatory aspects, once served as a socio-economic network that organized society in a way that was replicated in villages across the country.
It provided a kind of structural unity, even though it fostered inequalities.
The administrative systems established by empires such as the Mauryas, Guptas, Mughals, and later the British, brought distant regions under a common framework of governance, law, taxation, and military structure.
The idea of a centralized authority, even when the rulers changed, created an underlying political continuity.
Cultural expressions—art, architecture, music, dance, and festivals—have been another strong unifying force. BSOG 171 Free Solved Assignment 2024
From the cave paintings of Ajanta and Ellora to the temples of Khajuraho, Konark, and Madurai, the visual arts in India have depicted religious, mythological, and philosophical themes that resonate across regions.
Similarly, classical music traditions like Hindustani and Carnatic music, while distinct in their style, share foundational concepts such as ragas and talas.
The celebration of festivals such as Diwali, Holi, Eid, Baisakhi, Durga Puja, and Christmas across India, though often with regional flavors, brings people together in a spirit of joy and community.
These shared cultural practices create a sense of belonging and foster a collective memory that transcends regional boundaries.
Another major factor in the unification of Indian civilization has been the resilience and adaptability of its culture.
India has historically been a melting pot of cultures, having absorbed and integrated influences from Persian, Greek, Central Asian, Arab, and European civilizations.
Rather than being fragmented by these influences, India transformed them into a uniquely Indian synthesis. BSOG 171 Free Solved Assignment 2024
The spread of Islam, for instance, led to the birth of Indo-Islamic architecture and the Sufi tradition, both of which were deeply rooted in Indian soil.
Similarly, British colonial rule, while exploitative, laid the foundation for a modern infrastructure, education system, and the introduction of democratic ideals—all of which helped to foster a sense of nationalism and unity during the freedom struggle.
The Indian freedom movement itself became a powerful unifying force.
Under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, the movement transcended regional, linguistic, religious, and caste barriers, bringing together millions of Indians in a common cause.
The idea of ‘Bharat Mata’ and the vision of a united India became rallying symbols of national unity. BSOG 171 Free Solved Assignment 2024
Post-independence, democratic institutions, a common constitution, and the vision of secularism and socialism further cemented the idea of unity in diversity.
Q 2. Critically examine the Orientalist view of India
Ans. The Orientalist view of India has played a significant role in shaping how the West perceived Indian civilization, culture, and history.
At its core, Orientalism refers to a way of seeing the East—particularly Asia and the Middle East—through a lens of exoticism, backwardness, and cultural inferiority.
The term gained critical importance after the publication of Edward Said’s pathbreaking work Orientalism in 1978, where he argued that this body of knowledge was not objective but deeply tied to colonial power structures.
When we apply this framework to India, the Orientalist view reveals both intellectual curiosity and problematic stereotyping.
While it contributed to the preservation and study of Indian texts, languages, and customs, it also served colonial interests and often distorted India’s past to justify foreign rule. BSOG 171 Free Solved Assignment 2024
The roots of Orientalist thought in India can be traced back to the late 18th and early 19th centuries, particularly with the arrival of British scholars and administrators like Sir William Jones, Charles Wilkins, and Max Müller.
These individuals were fascinated by India’s ancient traditions, religious texts, and linguistic heritage.
Sir William Jones, for instance, was a pioneer who founded the Asiatic Society in 1784 and translated several Sanskrit texts into English, including Kalidasa’s Shakuntala and portions of the Manusmriti.
His work opened the gates for the Western world to engage with Indian knowledge systems. BSOG 171 Free Solved Assignment 2024
Orientalists were struck by the richness of Indian philosophy, mathematics, literature, and spirituality. They considered ancient India as a cradle of civilization, and in doing so, constructed a glorified image of India’s classical past.
However, this admiration came with a paradox. While Orientalists praised India’s ancient glory, they also viewed contemporary India as degenerate and stagnant.
In their eyes, the India of their time had lost its vitality and was incapable of progress without Western intervention.
This duality—celebrating the past while denouncing the present—allowed British colonial rulers to justify their domination.
They argued that by ruling India, they were restoring order, reason, and enlightenment to a land that had once been great but had now fallen into decay.
This idea of the “white man’s burden” became a central pillar of colonial ideology, and Orientalist scholarship was often used to support it.
Moreover, Orientalist scholars often interpreted Indian culture through their own cultural biases. BSOG 171 Free Solved Assignment 2024
For instance, they viewed Hinduism through a Judeo-Christian lens, labeling it as idolatrous, superstitious, and chaotic.
The caste system was exaggerated and portrayed as the defining feature of Indian society, often without understanding its complexity or regional variations.
Texts like the Manusmriti, which were not necessarily central to the daily lives of ordinary Indians, were treated as foundational legal documents, shaping the British understanding of Indian law and customs.
This selective reading led to the essentialization of Indian identity, reducing it to a few stereotypes and ignoring its diversity and fluidity.
Critics of Orientalism argue that this form of knowledge was not innocent or purely academic—it was deeply political. Edward Said emphasized that Orientalist representations served the interests of imperial power.
In India’s case, the British used knowledge about Indian society to control it more effectively.
They codified laws based on ancient texts, restructured the education system to promote English, and often undermined indigenous institutions.
By portraying Indians as irrational, emotional, and unscientific, Orientalists made Western rationality and governance seem superior and necessary.
However, it is important to recognize that Orientalism was not a monolith. Not all Orientalists were tools of imperialism.
Some, like William Jones and Max Müller, were genuinely respectful of Indian traditions and sought to understand them on their own terms.
Max Müller, though criticized by later scholars, played a key role in introducing Indian spiritual texts to the Western world. BSOG 171 Free Solved Assignment 2024
His translation of the Rigveda and the Upanishads sparked interest in Indian philosophy among European intellectuals.
Furthermore, his belief that all religions shared a common origin helped create a more universal understanding of human spirituality, even if it sometimes involved oversimplification.
Ironically, Orientalist scholarship also contributed to the rise of Indian nationalism.
By highlighting India’s ancient cultural and intellectual achievements, Orientalists indirectly inspired Indian reformers and freedom fighters to take pride in their heritage.
Leaders like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Swami Vivekananda, and later Mahatma Gandhi used the knowledge of India’s classical past to assert the dignity and capability of Indian civilization.
They challenged the colonial narrative that India was primitive and in need of Western salvation. Instead, they envisioned a modern India rooted in its own cultural values and capable of self-rule.
The post-colonial critique of Orientalism has led to a more nuanced understanding of Indian history. BSOG 171 Free Solved Assignment 2024
Scholars now recognize that Indian society cannot be understood through simplistic binaries like tradition versus modernity or East versus West.
Contemporary historians such as Romila Thapar, Ranajit Guha, and Partha Chatterjee have argued for more indigenous frameworks of understanding India’s past, moving beyond colonial narratives.
The Subaltern Studies group, in particular, sought to recover the voices of ordinary people, peasants, and marginalized communities who were often ignored in colonial records and elite histories.
Assignment B
Q 3. Write note on the relationship between caste and class
Ans. The relationship between caste and class in Indian society is a deeply intertwined and complex one, rooted in centuries of historical, economic, and cultural developments. BSOG 171 Free Solved Assignment 2024
While both caste and class are systems of social stratification, their origins, nature, and impact differ significantly.
Caste is a traditional, hereditary form of social hierarchy deeply embedded in Hindu religious and social customs, whereas class is largely based on economic position, occupation, and wealth.
Yet, in the Indian context, these two structures are not completely separate—they often overlap, influence, and reinforce each other, creating a layered social fabric that shapes individual identities and life opportunities.
Caste, in India, has historically determined a person’s occupation, social status, and access to resources.
The traditional varna system divided society into four broad categories—Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (traders), and Shudras (laborers)—with those outside the varna system, especially Dalits, facing extreme exclusion.
This system was rigid, hereditary, and deeply ritualistic.
It not only dictated professional roles but also controlled aspects of social life such as marriage, food habits, and physical proximity. Caste thus became a deeply entrenched form of social identity and exclusion that continued for centuries.
On the other hand, class is a more modern concept, influenced by factors such as income, education, land ownership, and employment.
In theory, class is considered more flexible and open to mobility; individuals can move from a lower to a higher class based on personal achievement, education, or economic gain. BSOG 171 Free Solved Assignment 2024
However, in India, class is not entirely free from the influence of caste.
Historically dominant castes had access to land, education, and political power, which helped them rise into the middle and upper classes as India modernized.
In contrast, historically marginalized castes, especially Dalits and Adivasis, were denied these basic resources, pushing them into lower economic classes.
This overlapping of caste and class can be seen in the persistence of inequality even in modern India.
While economic growth and urbanization have somewhat diluted caste identities, especially in metropolitan areas, the shadow of caste still influences hiring practices, access to quality education, housing, and even social networks.
For example, many Dalits continue to be underrepresented in high-paying corporate jobs and are more likely to be found in menial or informal work sectors.
Similarly, certain caste groups with economic capital use their resources to dominate not just rural social structures but also urban and political spaces.
There are, however, exceptions to this trend. With affirmative action policies like reservation in education and jobs, many individuals from historically disadvantaged castes have managed to move into higher economic classes.
This emergence of a Dalit middle class has challenged the traditional alignment of caste and class. BSOG 171 Free Solved Assignment 2024
Yet, even among the upwardly mobile, caste discrimination can persist in subtle ways, indicating that class mobility does not always guarantee social acceptance or dignity.
Q 4. Describe matrilineal groups in North east India
Ans. The northeastern region of India is known not only for its diverse ethnic and cultural landscape but also for housing some of the few matrilineal societies in the country.
Unlike the predominant patriarchal system in most parts of India, where lineage and inheritance pass through the male line, certain communities in the Northeast follow a matrilineal system in which descent, family name, and property are traced through the mother.
Among these, the Khasi, Garo, and Jaintia tribes of Meghalaya are the most well-known matrilineal groups.
This social structure gives women a central role in familial and societal arrangements, though it does not necessarily mean that they hold political power or complete control over decision-making.
The Khasi tribe, the largest among the matrilineal communities in Meghalaya, offers a unique example of how this system operates.
In Khasi society, lineage is traced through the mother’s line, and property—especially ancestral property—is inherited by the youngest daughter, known as the Ka Khadduh. BSOG 171 Free Solved Assignment 2024
She becomes the custodian of the family’s wealth and is expected to care for her parents and any unmarried or dependent siblings. Children take the mother’s surname, and after marriage, men usually move into the wife’s home.
This system ensures that the family property remains intact and is passed down within the same maternal line, thereby strengthening family bonds and support systems.
The Garo community, also based in Meghalaya, follows a similar matrilineal structure but with some variations.
Inheritance is typically passed to the youngest daughter, but unlike the Khasi, the Garo have a more defined division between male and female roles.
While property belongs to women, important decisions, especially those concerning clan matters or village governance, are often taken by men.
Uncles, particularly the mother’s brothers, play a significant role in the upbringing and guidance of children. BSOG 171 Free Solved Assignment 2024
This indicates that while women enjoy social recognition and property rights, the community still retains a male-centric leadership model in many aspects of life.
The Jaintias, also located in Meghalaya, are another matrilineal tribe. Their system is largely similar to that of the Khasis, with lineage and property flowing through the mother’s line.
The youngest daughter usually inherits the family home, and maternal uncles often take active roles in managing family and clan affairs.
Among all these communities, the matrilineal structure promotes a strong sense of family unity and security for women, particularly in terms of economic support and social status.
However, it’s important to note that matriliny in these societies does not equate to matriarchy. Political power and religious leadership are still largely in the hands of men.
Even though women own property and play a central role in the family, they are often excluded from formal political structures and decision-making bodies.
In recent years, there has been increasing debate within these communities about gender roles, with some groups calling for more balanced representation for both men and women in family and social institutions.
Q 5. Explain the nature of religious diversity in India?
Ans. India is a land of immense religious diversity, a characteristic that has been deeply woven into the fabric of its civilization for thousands of years.
From ancient times to the present day, the subcontinent has been home to a wide variety of faiths, each with its own customs, philosophies, rituals, and worldviews.
This diversity is not only a result of historical evolution but also a reflection of India’s cultural openness and its long-standing tradition of spiritual inquiry and tolerance.
The nature of religious diversity in India is both complex and unique, as it encompasses not only different religions but also the vast internal variations within each religious tradition. BSOG 171 Free Solved Assignment 2024
The most prominent aspect of religious diversity in India is the coexistence of multiple major religions. Hinduism, the majority faith, is itself incredibly diverse, with various sects, deities, rituals, and philosophies.
It ranges from philosophical schools like Vedanta and Samkhya to devotional movements like Vaishnavism and Shaivism.
Side by side with Hinduism, there exist other Indian-born religions such as Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism.
Each of these faiths emerged from the Indian soil as responses to social and philosophical questions of their time and brought with them unique ethical teachings and ways of life.
In addition to these indigenous religions, India is also home to followers of Islam, Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism.
Islam arrived in India as early as the 7th century through trade and later expanded through conquests and Sufi missionary movements.
Today, India has one of the largest Muslim populations in the world.
Christianity came with the arrival of St. Thomas in Kerala in the first century and grew further during colonial times. BSOG 171 Free Solved Assignment 2024
Jews and Zoroastrians, fleeing persecution elsewhere, found safe refuge in India centuries ago and have since become integral parts of the country’s cultural mosaic.
What makes India’s religious diversity especially rich is not just the presence of multiple religions but the depth of interaction between them.
Indian society has witnessed centuries of dialogue, cohabitation, cultural exchange, and sometimes conflict among different religious groups.
Temples, mosques, churches, gurdwaras, synagogues, and monasteries can be found across the country, often within the same neighborhoods.
Religious festivals from Diwali to Eid, Christmas to Baisakhi, are celebrated with enthusiasm by people from different backgrounds, contributing to a shared cultural experience. BSOG 171 Free Solved Assignment 2024
However, this diversity has not always been free of tension.
At various points in history, religious differences have led to conflicts, such as communal riots or political divisions.
Yet, despite these challenges, the broader social fabric of India has shown remarkable resilience.
The Indian Constitution recognizes this pluralism and guarantees the freedom of religion to every citizen.
Secularism in the Indian context means not the absence of religion, but equal respect and treatment of all religions by the state.
Assignment C
Q 6. Purity and pollution
Ans. The concepts of purity and pollution hold deep cultural and religious significance in Indian society, particularly within the traditional Hindu social framework. BSOG 171 Free Solved Assignment 2024
These ideas are not just about cleanliness in a physical sense but are deeply symbolic, tied to morality, social hierarchy, and spiritual belief.
Purity is often associated with cleanliness, ritual correctness, and moral discipline, while pollution is linked with bodily functions, death, birth, menstruation, and contact with people from lower castes.
Together, they have historically played a major role in maintaining social boundaries, especially through the caste system.
In traditional Hindu society, the notion of purity determined who could perform religious rituals, enter temples, or even cook food for others.
Brahmins, considered the purest, had to follow strict rules to maintain their spiritual and social standing.
On the other hand, Dalits and other so-called “untouchables” were viewed as inherently polluted, often barred from public spaces and denied access to basic rights.
Even everyday acts like sharing food, water, or touch were regulated by these purity rules. BSOG 171 Free Solved Assignment 2024
Women, too, were subjected to these notions, especially during menstruation and childbirth, when they were seen as impure and kept in isolation.
Though modern India, under constitutional law, rejects caste-based discrimination, the ideas of purity and pollution still persist subtly in social behavior, especially in rural areas.
These concepts, deeply ingrained over centuries, continue to influence attitudes, interactions, and even modern caste prejudices, making it a subject of continued social and academic discussion.
Q 7. Stateless Societies
Ans. Stateless societies are social systems that function without a centralized authority or formal government.
Unlike modern nation-states, these societies do not have a defined political structure with institutions like parliaments, police forces, or codified laws.
Instead, governance in stateless societies is rooted in kinship ties, age-based hierarchies, customs, and communal consensus.
Decision-making is often collective, and leadership, if it exists, is usually informal and based on respect, wisdom, or seniority rather than legal authority or coercive power.
Many tribal communities in Africa, Asia, and even parts of India have traditionally existed as stateless societies. BSOG 171 Free Solved Assignment 2024
Among the well-known examples are the Nuer of South Sudan or some North-Eastern Indian tribes like the Ao Nagas, who have historically governed themselves through clan systems and customary laws.
In these societies, social order is maintained through shared values, oral traditions, and conflict resolution mechanisms like councils of elders or community meetings.
Justice is not about punishment but about restoring balance and harmony within the group.
One of the striking features of stateless societies is their strong emphasis on equality and cooperation.
Without rigid bureaucratic structures, there is often less social stratification, and community members are more directly involved in everyday governance.
However, with the spread of modern state systems, many stateless societies have been absorbed into larger political frameworks, which sometimes undermines their traditional ways of life. BSOG 171 Free Solved Assignment 2024
In essence, stateless societies demonstrate that order and organization can exist without formal state apparatus, relying instead on trust, tradition, and communal responsibility.
Q 8. Pilgrimage towns
Ans. Pilgrimage towns hold a special place in the cultural and spiritual landscape of India.
These are towns or cities that have grown around religious sites, temples, shrines, or sacred natural spots and attract large numbers of pilgrims from across the country and even abroad.
The significance of pilgrimage towns lies not just in their religious importance but also in the way they shape local economies, cultural practices, and patterns of settlement.
Cities like Varanasi, Rameswaram, Tirupati, Amritsar, Bodh Gaya, and Puri are prime examples of pilgrimage towns, each rooted in the deep spiritual beliefs of different religious communities. BSOG 171 Free Solved Assignment 2024
These towns often revolve around a central sacred site, and their daily life is closely intertwined with religious rituals, festivals, and seasonal pilgrimages.
Over time, they develop unique architectural styles, vibrant markets selling religious items, and networks of dharamshalas, lodges, and eateries catering to pilgrims.
Pilgrimage towns also become centers for traditional arts, music, and literature that reflect the spiritual identity of the place.
For many pilgrims, visiting these towns is more than a journey—it is a deeply emotional and transformative experience.
Economically, pilgrimage tourism sustains the livelihood of thousands who depend on the steady inflow of visitors.
However, these towns also face challenges such as overcrowding, pollution, and pressure on infrastructure. BSOG 171 Free Solved Assignment 2024
Despite these issues, pilgrimage towns remain powerful symbols of faith and continuity, preserving spiritual traditions and providing a space where the sacred and the everyday meet in meaningful ways.
Q 9. Tribe
Ans. A tribe is a social group that is traditionally organized on the basis of kinship, shared culture, common language, and a distinct way of life.
In India, tribal communities, also known as Adivasis, represent some of the oldest inhabitants of the subcontinent.
They have historically lived close to nature, often in forested, hilly, or remote rural areas, where their lifestyle has been deeply connected to natural resources.
Tribes usually have their own customs, rituals, oral traditions, and belief systems that differ significantly from the mainstream society.
Their social structure is often egalitarian, and decisions are made collectively, usually by village elders or community councils.
What sets tribes apart is their strong sense of community and identity.
They rely heavily on cooperation, with traditional occupations like hunting, gathering, shifting cultivation, fishing, and handicrafts forming the basis of their economy. BSOG 171 Free Solved Assignment 2024
While each tribe is unique, there is a common emphasis on harmony with nature and respect for ancestral traditions.
Examples of major tribes in India include the Santhals, Gonds, Bhils, Nagas, and Todas, among many others.
However, tribal communities in India have faced historical marginalization and socio-economic challenges.
Issues like land alienation, displacement due to development projects, lack of access to education, and healthcare have affected their well-being.
Despite constitutional protections and affirmative policies, many tribes continue to struggle for their rights and recognition.
Yet, their cultural richness and deep ecological knowledge remain invaluable to India’s diverse heritage and offer important lessons on sustainable living and social cohesion.
Q 10. Endogamy
Ans. Endogamy refers to the social practice of marrying within a specific social, cultural, religious, or caste group.
It is a key feature of many traditional societies, especially in India, where caste-based endogamy has been a central mechanism in maintaining social boundaries.
In an endogamous system, individuals are expected to choose their life partners from within their own community, and marriages outside the group are often discouraged or even strongly opposed.
This practice helps preserve the identity, customs, values, and purity of the group, as defined by its own standards. BSOG 171 Free Solved Assignment 2024
In the Indian context, caste endogamy is most prominently observed among Hindus, where each caste or sub-caste insists on marriage within its own boundaries.
This ensures the continuation of caste hierarchy, status, and occupation-based distinctions.
For example, a Brahmin family traditionally prefers a match from within the Brahmin caste, believing that it maintains ritual purity and social prestige.
Similarly, endogamy is also observed in religious groups and tribal communities, where marrying outside the community is seen as a threat to cultural integrity and social cohesion.
However, endogamy also has its social drawbacks.
It restricts individual choice, reinforces social divisions, and often leads to discrimination against those who cross community boundaries through inter-caste or inter-religious marriages.
In modern times, with increasing awareness, education, and mobility, endogamous barriers are slowly being challenged, especially in urban areas.
Still, in many parts of India, endogamy remains a deeply rooted practice, shaping family life, social expectations, and group identity.
IGNOU BGDG 172 Free Solved Assignment 2024