BHIE 141
HISTORY OF CHINA (C. 1840 – 1978)
IGNOU BHIE 141 Solved Free Assignment
BHIE 141 Solved Free Assignment July 2024 & January 2025
Assignment – I
Q 1. Write a note on the New Cultural Movement in China after 1911. Discuss the role of intellectuals in China’s Cultural Revolution.
Ans. The New Cultural Movement in China emerged shortly after the fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911, marking a significant shift in the intellectual and cultural landscape of the nation.
This movement was initiated by a group of reform-minded scholars and thinkers who believed that China’s traditional Confucian values had failed to modernize the country and needed to be replaced with more progressive ideas.
One of the key features of the New Cultural Movement was the promotion of Western values such as democracy, science, and individual rights.
Intellectuals argued that China could only progress by embracing modern education and rejecting outdated customs and beliefs that had dominated Chinese society for centuries.
Language reform played a crucial role in the movement, as scholars promoted the use of vernacular Chinese (baihua) instead of classical Chinese.
This change was intended to make literature and education more accessible to the general public, thus encouraging greater participation in the national discourse.
The movement gained momentum through platforms like the magazine New Youth, edited by Chen Duxiu, who became a leading voice in spreading revolutionary ideas.
He and others believed that cultural change was essential for political transformation and that young people had a vital role in shaping China’s future.
Another influential figure was Hu Shi, who advocated for literary reform and pragmatic philosophy.
He emphasized the importance of experimentation and empirical thinking over blind adherence to tradition, inspiring many students and teachers to adopt new ways of learning and expression.
The May Fourth Movement of 1919, sparked by national anger over the Treaty of Versailles, acted as an extension of the New Cultural Movement.
Intellectuals and students organized protests demanding stronger national sovereignty and further rejection of feudal values, signaling a deeper shift toward modernization and reform.
This era also saw a rise in feminist thought and the questioning of gender roles.
Women’s emancipation became a topic of discussion among intellectuals, and calls for gender equality became intertwined with broader efforts to modernize Chinese society.
The influence of the New Cultural Movement persisted into the later decades, shaping the ideological foundation of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).
Many of the early leaders of the CCP, including Mao Zedong, were inspired by the intellectual energy and radical ideas of this period.
By the time of the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976), the role of intellectuals had dramatically changed.
While they had once led the call for reform and modernization, they became one of the main targets during Mao’s campaign to eliminate “old culture” and counter-revolutionary thought.
Mao launched the Cultural Revolution with the aim of purging capitalist elements and reaffirming the communist ideology. He believed that intellectuals were harboring bourgeois values and using their positions to resist revolutionary change, making them a threat to the unity and ideology of the state.
Students, particularly the Red Guards, were mobilized to challenge authority figures, including teachers, scholars, and university officials. Intellectuals faced public humiliation, were sent to the countryside for re-education through labor, and in many cases, suffered violence or death.
This reversal of the intellectuals’ role from reformers to enemies of the revolution marked a tragic period in Chinese history.
Institutions of higher learning were shut down, and critical thinking was discouraged in favor of ideological loyalty, deeply damaging the academic and cultural progress of the nation.
Despite the repression, some intellectuals tried to preserve knowledge and foster quiet resistance.
Others kept faith that their work would one day contribute to rebuilding a more open and modern China once the political storm passed.
The Cultural Revolution had long-lasting effects on China’s educational system, cultural life, and intellectual freedom. It created a climate of fear and conformity that took decades to overcome, leaving scars in the national memory.
However, the legacy of the New Cultural Movement remains significant, as it laid the groundwork for questioning authority, promoting education, and valuing individual freedom.
These ideals would re-emerge during later periods of reform, particularly after Mao’s death.
In summary, the New Cultural Movement after 1911 was a bold attempt by Chinese intellectuals to break away from tradition and guide the nation toward modernity.
Their enthusiasm for reform was later met with tragedy during the Cultural Revolution, when the same group became the primary targets of political persecution.
The contrasting roles of intellectuals in these two movements highlight the complex relationship between knowledge, power, and ideology in modern Chinese history.
Their journey reflects both the hope and the hardship of seeking truth and progress in times of great upheaval.
Q 2. Analyse the significance of the Opium Wars in the evolution of the Sino-Western relations in the nineteenth century.
Ans. The Opium Wars marked a turning point in the history of Sino-Western relations during the nineteenth century.
These conflicts symbolized the beginning of a century of foreign dominance and internal turmoil for China.
They exposed the vulnerability of the Qing dynasty in the face of Western industrial and military power.
The First Opium War (1839–1842) broke out when the Qing government tried to suppress the illegal opium trade being run by British merchants.
Britain, with its superior naval strength, easily defeated Chinese forces, leading to the humiliating Treaty of Nanking. This treaty forced China to cede Hong Kong and open several ports to British trade.
The war shook China’s traditional worldview and self-image. For centuries, China had seen itself as a superior civilization.
The defeat showed that China was not as powerful as it believed, and it began a painful era of concessions and foreign influence.
The Qing government’s inability to resist Western intrusion undermined its legitimacy.
The Second Opium War (1856–1860), also known as the Arrow War, further weakened China.
It involved not just Britain but also France, and ended with the Treaty of Tientsin and the Convention of Peking.
These agreements gave more privileges to Western powers, including the right to establish embassies and spread Christianity.
These wars significantly altered the nature of trade and diplomacy between China and the West.
Earlier, China had controlled foreign trade strictly through the Canton system. After the wars, Western nations gained greater access to Chinese markets and imposed unfair terms that benefited their own economies.
The Opium Wars also revealed the technological and organizational gap between China and Western countries.
Western powers used steam-powered gunboats and modern weapons, while China was still relying on outdated methods. This technological imbalance made it hard for China to defend its sovereignty.
The wars were not just about trade or opium—they symbolized the clash between two very different worldviews.
While Western powers operated through a system of treaties and legal rights, the Chinese imperial system was based on hierarchy and tribute.
The conflict shattered China’s old diplomatic traditions.
As a result of the treaties, foreign settlements were established in Chinese cities like Shanghai and Guangzhou.
These areas became symbols of foreign intrusion and economic control, often operating under their own laws. For many Chinese, this was a daily reminder of national weakness and loss of dignity.
The social and political effects of the wars were far-reaching. The Qing dynasty was already struggling with internal issues, and the foreign pressure added to its instability.
It became increasingly difficult for the imperial government to maintain control, which eventually led to uprisings and movements for reform.
One of the key outcomes was the rise of Chinese nationalism. Intellectuals and reformers began to ask why China had fallen so far behind the West.
This led to calls for modernization in industry, military, and education, planting the early seeds of reform that would grow in the later nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
The Opium Wars also influenced how China viewed the West. While there was resentment and anger, some Chinese thinkers also admired Western advancements and began advocating for learning from foreign methods.
This mixed feeling of humiliation and aspiration became central in later reform movements.
Sino-Western relations during this period were heavily marked by imbalance and tension.
Western nations treated China as a defeated and backward power, while China struggled to maintain its cultural identity and sovereignty.
These dynamics shaped the tone of interactions for decades to come.
The wars also created a legacy of mistrust. The use of military force to push trade and religion created a deep resentment among the Chinese people.
Many viewed Western nations as exploitative and unjust, a sentiment that would persist well into the twentieth century.
In diplomatic terms, China had to abandon its traditional worldview and accept a new system of international relations.
This change was not voluntary but forced, and it led to a long period of adjustment as China tried to find its place in a world dominated by powerful empires.
Overall, the Opium Wars were more than just military conflicts—they were events that reshaped China’s internal and external relations.
They opened up China to the global economy but under terms that hurt its sovereignty and pride.
The legacy of these wars still echoes in China’s modern worldview.
Assignment – II
Q 3. Discuss the emergence of the Chinese bourgeoisie as a social force.
Ans. The emergence of the Chinese bourgeoisie as a social force began in the late Qing dynasty and gathered momentum during the early twentieth century.
This class was composed mainly of merchants, industrialists, bankers, and urban professionals who gained economic strength through trade and entrepreneurship.
The growth of treaty ports after the Opium Wars gave rise to new commercial opportunities. Chinese merchants began to expand their businesses by engaging in both domestic and foreign trade.
They benefited from Western technology, infrastructure, and financial networks, slowly building their economic influence.
The Self-Strengthening Movement in the late 19th century also contributed to the rise of a modern Chinese bourgeoisie.
The movement aimed to adopt Western industrial methods, which led to the establishment of Chinese-run factories, banks, and shipping companies. This economic modernization created new opportunities for capitalist growth.
The fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911 further opened the door for the bourgeoisie to participate in political life.
With the weakening of imperial power and the rise of a republican system, some members of the bourgeoisie began to support political reforms, modernization, and nationalism, seeing themselves as leaders of a new China.
Urban centers like Shanghai, Tianjin, and Guangzhou became the heart of bourgeois activity.
These cities experienced rapid growth in industry, banking, and real estate. The urban middle class began to live in Western-style homes, adopt modern fashion, and send their children to schools influenced by Western education.
The bourgeoisie also played a role in shaping culture and media.
Many invested in publishing houses, newspapers, and film industries. Their tastes and preferences influenced popular culture, and they helped spread ideas about progress, freedom, and nationalism among the wider population.
Despite their growing influence, the Chinese bourgeoisie remained in a fragile position.
They were squeezed between foreign capitalists who dominated large sections of the economy and a rural peasantry that remained impoverished and alienated. Their economic gains did not translate into full political power.
During the May Fourth Movement in 1919, parts of the bourgeoisie supported the students and intellectuals who were demanding modernization and resisting foreign domination.
They saw themselves as allies in the fight for a stronger, independent China that could compete on the world stage.
However, their interests were often at odds with both the conservative warlords and the emerging communist movement.
While they wanted economic reform and political stability, they were wary of radical land reforms and socialist ideas that threatened private property and capitalism.
The Chinese Communist Party initially sought alliances with sections of the bourgeoisie during its early years, particularly under the United Front strategy.
However, over time, especially after the establishment of the People’s Republic in 1949, the bourgeoisie was viewed with suspicion and their influence was gradually dismantled.
Although the bourgeoisie did not achieve long-term dominance in politics, their role in the economic and cultural modernization of early 20th-century China was significant.
They helped build the foundations for a more modern and industrialized society.
Q 4. Discuss the economic and social reforms introduced in China after the Revolution of 1949.
Ans. After the Revolution of 1949, when the Communist Party under Mao Zedong established the People’s Republic of China, the country embarked on a series of major economic and social reforms.
These reforms aimed to break away from feudal and colonial legacies and build a socialist society based on equality and state ownership.
One of the earliest and most significant economic reforms was land redistribution. Landlords’ properties were confiscated and distributed to landless peasants.
This not only addressed deep-rooted inequalities in rural China but also won massive support for the Communist regime among the peasantry.
By the early 1950s, the government began collectivizing agriculture. Individual land ownership was gradually replaced with collective farming through mutual aid teams and people’s communes.
Though intended to increase productivity and equality, it disrupted traditional farming practices and caused resistance in some areas.
The First Five-Year Plan (1953–1957) focused on rapid industrialization with Soviet assistance.
Heavy industries like steel, coal, and machinery received priority.
Urban industrial centers grew, and many rural Chinese were mobilized to support industrial goals, though consumer goods and agriculture were neglected.
During the Great Leap Forward (1958–1962), the government aimed to turn China into a global industrial power overnight.
Communes were pushed to produce steel in backyard furnaces, and unrealistic production targets led to false reporting.
The result was a massive famine, causing millions of deaths and severe economic setbacks.
Despite the Great Leap Forward’s failure, the government continued to pursue centralized planning and state control over resources.
Urban housing, transportation, and education became state-managed, with the goal of providing equal access to basic services, though quality and availability varied widely.
Social reforms also played a key role in reshaping Chinese society. The traditional class hierarchy was dismantled.
Landlords, capitalists, and former elites lost their privileges, while workers and peasants were glorified as the foundation of the new society. Class struggle became a central theme in public life.
The government launched campaigns to promote literacy and education. Schools were established in remote areas, and simplified Chinese characters were introduced to help more people read and write.
Education became a tool for spreading socialist ideology as well as practical knowledge.
Women’s rights saw significant advancement after 1949. The Marriage Law of 1950 abolished arranged marriages and gave women the right to divorce and inherit property.
Women were encouraged to join the workforce, and their participation in public life was seen as essential to building socialism.
Healthcare reforms were also introduced, especially in rural areas. The “barefoot doctor” program trained rural health workers to provide basic care, focusing on prevention and hygiene.
This helped reduce mortality rates and improved public health across vast regions of China.
Urban employment was organized through state-owned enterprises, where workers received not just wages but also housing, healthcare, and retirement benefits.
This system created a sense of security but also limited individual economic mobility and innovation.
In cultural terms, the government promoted art, literature, and media that reflected socialist ideals.
Traditional customs and beliefs were discouraged, and cultural activities were used to shape public thinking in alignment with party ideology.
Q 5. Write a note on Confucianism and Taoism.
Ans. Confucianism and Taoism are two of the most influential philosophical traditions in Chinese history.
Both emerged around the same period, during the 6th century BCE, yet they offer very different perspectives on life, society, and the universe.
Confucianism was founded by Confucius, who emphasized the importance of ethics, family, and proper social conduct.
It focuses on building a harmonious society through moral education, respect for elders, and fulfillment of social roles.
At the heart of Confucianism lies the concept of Ren (benevolence or humaneness). It encourages kindness, empathy, and responsibility toward others, especially within the family and community.
A well-ordered society, according to Confucius, begins with well-cultivated individuals.
Confucianism also values Li (rituals or propriety), which means performing one’s duties with respect and correctness.
From daily manners to state ceremonies, rituals help maintain social order and foster a sense of duty and tradition.
Filial piety (Xiao), or respect for one’s parents and ancestors, is another core value. Confucius believed that loyalty within the family serves as a foundation for loyalty to the state and society.
This idea deeply shaped Chinese family life for centuries.
Confucian teachings stress education and the development of moral character. The ideal person, or Junzi, is someone who strives for virtue and self-improvement, regardless of their social background. Education becomes a path to personal and societal progress.
In contrast, Taoism (or Daoism), founded by Laozi, offers a more mystical and natural approach to life.
Its central idea is the Tao (or Dao), meaning “the Way”—an unseen force that flows through all things and governs the universe.
Taoism teaches that harmony comes not from rules and rituals, but from aligning oneself with the natural flow of life.
It encourages living simply, letting go of desires, and embracing spontaneity and inner peace rather than rigid discipline.
The concept of Wu Wei, or non-action, lies at the core of Taoist thought. It doesn’t mean doing nothing, but rather acting in harmony with nature, without force or resistance.
Taoists believe the best actions are those that arise naturally and effortlessly.
Taoism values intuition over intellect and believes that wisdom comes from observing nature.
Mountains, rivers, the changing seasons—all hold lessons about balance, patience, and the cycle of life. Nature is not to be conquered, but respected.
While Confucianism promotes order, structure, and duty, Taoism embraces flexibility, freedom, and the mystery of existence.
They may seem opposing, but many Chinese people historically followed both, depending on the situation—Confucianism for social life and Taoism for inner life.
Taoist practices include meditation, breathing techniques, and herbal medicine.
These aim to cultivate Chi (life energy) and achieve spiritual balance. Taoist philosophy also gave rise to Chinese alchemy and early scientific observations of nature.
Confucianism had a major impact on Chinese politics, education, and law.
It became the official ideology of many dynasties and shaped the civil service examination system, which selected scholars for government positions.
Taoism, meanwhile, influenced Chinese art, poetry, and landscape painting. Its themes of simplicity, solitude, and the natural world are deeply woven into traditional Chinese culture and aesthetics.
Assignment – III
Q 6. Explain the importance of the Self-Strengthening Movement in China.
Ans. The Self-Strengthening Movement, launched in the 1860s, aimed to modernize China’s military and economy by adopting Western technology. It marked an important attempt by Qing officials to respond to repeated defeats by foreign powers.
Though it had limited success, it laid the foundation for future reforms.
The movement focused on building railways, modern industries, and arsenals, mostly under local authority.
It helped China begin industrial development, but the lack of political reform and coordination limited its overall impact on national strength.
Q 7. Describe the Commune system.
Ans. The Commune system in China was introduced during the Great Leap Forward in the late 1950s.
It replaced family farming with large collective farms where people lived and worked together under state control.
The goal was to increase agricultural and industrial production rapidly. However, poor planning, forced collectivization, and unrealistic targets led to food shortages and a major famine.
Q 8. Explain the important points of the Boxer Protocol.
Ans. The Boxer Protocol was signed in 1901 after the Boxer Rebellion. It imposed harsh penalties on China, including a large indemnity to foreign powers and the right for foreign troops to be stationed in Beijing.
It symbolized the peak of foreign domination in China and exposed the Qing dynasty’s weakness, further fueling nationalist sentiments among the Chinese population.
Q 9. Discuss the rise of Marxism in China.
Ans. Marxism gained popularity in China after the May Fourth Movement of 1919. Young intellectuals, frustrated by Western imperialism and Qing failures, turned to socialist ideas for national salvation.
With support from the Soviet Union, the Chinese Communist Party was formed in 1921, laying the ideological base for future revolution and the rise of Mao Zedong.
Q 10. Write a note on the Taiping Uprising.
Ans. The Taiping Uprising (1850–1864) was a massive civil war led by Hong Xiuquan, who claimed to be the brother of Jesus.
He aimed to overthrow the Qing dynasty and establish a “Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace.”
The rebellion attracted millions, promising equality and social reform, but ended in failure and massive casualties. It deeply weakened the Qing and exposed deep unrest in Chinese society.
BHIE 142 Solved Free Assignment July 2024 & January 2025