BPYE 142
Social and Political Philosophy: Indian and Western
IGNOU BPYE 142 Free Solved Assignment 2024
BPYE 142 Free Solved Assignment July 2024 & January 2025
Q 1. Discuss the conception of Democracy. What are the basic principles of democracy?
Ans. Democracy is a form of government in which the power lies in the hands of the people. The word “democracy” comes from the Greek words “demos,” meaning “people,” and “kratos,” meaning “power” or “rule.”
So, democracy means “rule by the people.” In this system, citizens have the right to choose their leaders, make decisions about laws, and have a voice in how their country is run.
The idea of democracy has been around for a long time. It began in ancient Greece, especially in Athens, around 2,500 years ago.
At that time, only free men who were citizens could vote, and women or slaves were not allowed to take part.
Over time, democracy grew and developed into a more inclusive and fair system. Today, it is one of the most popular forms of government in the world.
There are two main types of democracy: direct democracy and indirect (or representative) democracy. BPYE 142 Free Solved Assignment
In direct democracy, people vote directly on laws and policies. This system works well in small communities but becomes difficult in large countries.
In indirect democracy, people elect representatives who make laws and decisions on their behalf. Most modern countries, like India and the United States, follow this system.
Now, let us understand the basic principles of democracy. These are the ideas and values that make democracy work effectively:
Popular Sovereignty
This means that the ultimate power lies with the people. Citizens are the true rulers of a democratic country.
They express their will through free and fair elections, where they choose their leaders and representatives.
Political Equality
In a democracy, all citizens are equal before the law. Everyone has the same political rights.
Each vote carries the same value, no matter if the person is rich or poor, male or female, educated or uneducated.
Rule of Law
Democracy is based on the rule of law. This means that the law is the highest authority, and everyone must follow it, including leaders and government officials. No one is above the law. BPYE 142 Free Solved Assignment
Fundamental Rights
A democratic system respects and protects the fundamental rights of every person.
These include the right to freedom of speech, freedom of religion, the right to live with dignity, and the right to seek justice. These rights allow people to live freely and without fear.
Free and Fair Elections
For democracy to work properly, elections must be held regularly and must be free and fair. People should be able to vote without fear or pressure.
All political parties should get an equal chance to campaign and share their ideas with the public.
Accountability and Transparency
In a democracy, leaders and government officials are responsible for their actions.
They must work for the benefit of the people. They are answerable to the public and must be open about their decisions and policies.
Majority Rule with Respect for Minority Rights
Democracy follows the principle of majority rule, which means the opinion of the majority is followed. BPYE 142 Free Solved Assignment
But at the same time, the rights of the minority must be protected. Everyone should have the freedom to express their thoughts and live without discrimination.
Separation of Powers
Democracy ensures that power is not concentrated in one hand.
It divides power among different branches of government – the legislature, the executive, and the judiciary. This balance helps prevent misuse of power.
Q 2. Discuss the idea of nationalism. Mention various kinds of nationalism.
Ans. Nationalism is the feeling of love, loyalty, and pride that people have for their country.
It is the belief that a group of people who share the same culture, language, history, and values should live together in a single nation and govern themselves.
Nationalism creates a strong sense of unity and belonging among the people of a country. BPYE 142 Free Solved Assignment
The idea of nationalism started growing during the 18th and 19th centuries, especially in Europe.
Earlier, people were mostly loyal to kings, empires, or their local communities.
But as time passed, people began to feel a deeper connection to their nation — the land they lived on, the language they spoke, and the shared history they had.
Nationalism played a very important role in many revolutions and independence movements.
For example, in India, the feeling of nationalism helped people come together to fight against British rule.
Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, and Subhas Chandra Bose encouraged people to unite for freedom.
This feeling made people from different religions, castes, and regions join hands and work toward a common goal — an independent India.
What is Nationalism?
Nationalism means giving importance to the interests of one’s nation over everything else. BPYE 142 Free Solved Assignment
A nationalist believes that the country should be strong, independent, and able to make its own decisions without outside control.
Nationalism brings people together in good times and helps them face challenges together.
However, nationalism can be both positive and negative.
. Positive nationalism promotes unity, peace, freedom, and development.
. Negative nationalism can create hatred for other nations or communities. It can lead to wars, discrimination, or even violence.
So, it is important to understand the types of nationalism, because different forms of nationalism can have different effects on society and the world.
Various Kinds of Nationalism
There are several types of nationalism. Each one is based on different beliefs or goals. Here are the main kinds: BPYE 142 Free Solved Assignment
Civic Nationalism : Civic nationalism is also called liberal nationalism. In this type, people from different backgrounds come together because they agree on certain political values like freedom, equality, and justice.
It does not matter which religion, race, or language you belong to — what matters is that you believe in the laws and system of the country.
Example: The United States is a good example of civic nationalism where people of different races and religions live together under one Constitution.
Cultural Nationalism : Cultural nationalism is based on shared culture, language, traditions, and customs.
It believes that people who have the same culture should form one nation. It gives a lot of importance to heritage and traditions.
Example: In India, people may feel cultural nationalism through festivals, food, and art that reflect Indian culture. BPYE 142 Free Solved Assignment
Ethnic Nationalism
Ethnic nationalism is based on common ancestry, race, or ethnicity. It believes that people who belong to the same ethnic group should live together in the same nation.
This type of nationalism can sometimes lead to conflict or discrimination against other ethnic groups.
Example: Nazi Germany under Hitler followed an extreme form of ethnic nationalism, which led to the Second World War and the Holocaust.
Religious Nationalism
In this type of nationalism, religion becomes the main factor that binds people together. BPYE 142 Free Solved Assignment
A religious nationalist believes that their religion should guide the country’s laws and policies.
While it can unite people of the same religion, it may create tension with people of other religions.
Example: Some countries in the Middle East follow religious nationalism based on Islam.
Economic Nationalism
Economic nationalism focuses on protecting the country’s economy.
It supports local businesses and industries and tries to reduce dependence on foreign goods or services. It promotes the idea of “buy local” or “make in your own country.”
Example: India’s “Make in India” campaign is a good example of economic nationalism. BPYE 142 Free Solved Assignment
Expansionist Nationalism
This is an extreme form of nationalism where a country tries to expand its borders by taking over other lands. It believes in national superiority and often leads to war or conflict.
Example, Hitler’s Germany and Mussolini’s Italy followed expansionist nationalism.
Q 3. Answer any two questions in about 250 words each.
a) Write a note on Gandhi’s idea of Swaraj.
Ans. Mahatma Gandhi’s idea of Swaraj was much deeper than just political freedom from British rule.
The word “Swaraj” means “self-rule” or “self-governance,” but Gandhi gave it a wider and more meaningful interpretation. BPYE 142 Free Solved Assignment
For him, Swaraj was not only about removing foreign rulers and getting independence; it was also about inner freedom, self-discipline, and moral responsibility. Gandhi believed that real Swaraj starts with the individual.
It is the ability of a person to control their own desires, thoughts, and actions.
According to him, if people are not able to rule themselves in their personal lives, then political independence would be of no use.
True freedom comes when people are honest, responsible, and morally strong.
Gandhi also strongly believed in the importance of villages. He imagined Swaraj as a system where every village in India was self-reliant and could manage its own affairs.
This idea is called “village Swaraj.” In his view, villages should have their own schools, small industries, clean water, healthcare, and a peaceful atmosphere.
He did not want power to stay in the hands of a few people in big cities or in the central government. BPYE 142 Free Solved Assignment
Instead, he wanted a decentralized system where people at the grassroots level had real power and the ability to make decisions for their own communities.
This idea was completely opposite to the centralised power structure followed by the British government at that time.
Another major part of Gandhi’s Swaraj was economic self-reliance. He wanted India to be free not only from British political control but also from economic dependence.
He encouraged people to use Indian-made products, wear Khadi (hand-spun cloth), and boycott foreign goods.
Gandhi believed that by depending on British goods, India had lost its own economic strength and dignity.
He wanted every Indian to take pride in their own culture, traditions, and local industries. BPYE 142 Free Solved Assignment
Through the Swadeshi Movement, he promoted the use of local resources and encouraged people to become self-sufficient.
Gandhi also made it clear that Swaraj does not mean just having rights, but also understanding our duties. He believed that with freedom comes great responsibility.
Every citizen should work hard, live simply, and think about the good of others. Only when people act with honesty and kindness can a country become truly free.
According to him, selfishness, greed, and corruption would ruin the meaning of Swaraj.
He said that Swaraj was not just something to be given by the government, but something that each person had to earn through right actions.
Importantly, Gandhi always believed that Swaraj should be achieved through non-violence and truth.
He introduced the world to the idea of Ahimsa (non-violence) and Satya (truth) as powerful tools to bring change. BPYE 142 Free Solved Assignment
For Gandhi, using violence to gain freedom would make us no better than the rulers we wanted to remove.
He believed that only through peace, patience, and truth could we achieve lasting freedom.
He inspired millions to join the freedom struggle in a non-violent way, and this peaceful movement became a symbol of moral strength across the world.
d) Discuss the idea of secularism. How the Indian version of secularism is different?
Ans. Secularism is the idea that the government should not favor or promote any religion.
In a secular country, people of all religions are treated equally, and everyone has the freedom to follow their own beliefs without fear or pressure.
Secularism separates religion from the affairs of the state, meaning that government decisions and laws are made without religious influence.
It ensures that no citizen is discriminated against based on their religion and that everyone has equal rights, no matter what faith they follow.
The main purpose of secularism is to create harmony and peace among people of different religions. BPYE 142 Free Solved Assignment
In countries where many religions are practiced, secularism helps to avoid religious conflict and allows people to live together peacefully.
It also protects minority communities from being dominated or mistreated by the majority. In a secular state, the government must remain neutral in matters of religion.
It cannot force any religion on its citizens, nor can it give special treatment to any religious group.
However, secularism is not the same everywhere. Different countries follow different models of secularism depending on their history and social structure.
For example, in countries like France, the state follows strict separation of religion and politics.
The government does not support any religious activity or symbol in public spaces, including schools and offices.
Religion is considered a private matter and should not be mixed with public life. This is called the Western model of secularism.
On the other hand, India’s version of secularism is unique and different from the Western model. BPYE 142 Free Solved Assignment
India is a land of great religious diversity, where people follow many religions like Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, Jainism, and others.
Because of this diversity, the Indian version of secularism does not mean complete separation of religion and state. Instead, it means equal respect for all religions.
The Indian government does not remain completely separate from religion; instead, it tries to treat all religions fairly and equally.
The Indian Constitution clearly states that India is a secular country. It guarantees every citizen the right to freedom of religion under Article 25 to 28.
This means that every person has the right to practice, preach, and follow any religion of their choice.
The state cannot force anyone to follow a particular religion, nor can it stop anyone from practicing their faith, as long as it does not harm public order or other people’s rights.
One of the unique features of Indian secularism is that the state can interfere in religious matters if needed to ensure equality and justice.
For example, the government has passed laws to ban untouchability, child marriage, and dowry, even though these were supported by some traditional religious practices.
This is done to protect the rights of individuals, especially women and weaker sections of society. BPYE 142 Free Solved Assignment
At the same time, the Indian government also supports religious festivals and institutions by providing help and financial aid when needed, to promote unity and cultural values.
Another difference is that Indian secularism is not anti-religion. It does not ask people to hide or give up their religion.
In fact, India celebrates its religious diversity and promotes interfaith harmony.
Public holidays are given for festivals of different religions, and religious symbols are often seen in public life.
This flexible and inclusive model of secularism suits the Indian context, where religion plays an important role in people’s daily lives.
Q 4. Answer any four questions in about 150 words each.
a) Write a note on the salient features of Individualism.
Ans. Individualism is the belief that each person is unique, independent, and has the right to make their own choices.
It focuses on personal freedom, self-reliance, and the value of the individual over the group or society. BPYE 142 Free Solved Assignment
In an individualistic society, people are encouraged to think for themselves, express their opinions, and follow their own goals and dreams.
The idea is that everyone has their own identity and should not be forced to live according to someone else’s rules.
One of the main features of individualism is the importance of personal freedom.
People should have the right to choose their own lifestyle, job, religion, or beliefs without interference.
Another important feature is self-reliance, which means individuals are expected to take care of themselves, solve their problems, and not depend too much on others or the government.
Individual responsibility is also key — each person is responsible for their own actions, success, or failure.
Individualism also supports the idea of equality before the law. No one should be treated unfairly because of their race, gender, caste, or religion.
Everyone should have the same rights and opportunities to grow.
Another feature is freedom of expression, which means people can speak their minds, follow their passions, and be creative without fear, as long as it does not harm others. BPYE 142 Free Solved Assignment
b) Differentiate between natural rights and human rights.
Ans. Natural rights and human rights are both important concepts that deal with the basic freedoms and dignity of individuals.
While they may seem similar, they are different in their origin, meaning, and how they are applied in society.
Both kinds of rights aim to protect human life, but their source and recognition vary.
Understanding the difference between the two helps us better understand how our freedoms are protected and where they come from.
Natural rights are those rights that a person is born with. These rights are considered to come from nature, reason, or God.
They are universal, which means they apply to all human beings simply because they are human. BPYE 142 Free Solved Assignment
No government or authority gives these rights; they exist by themselves.
Thinkers like John Locke, a famous philosopher, believed that natural rights are given by nature and cannot be taken away by anyone.
He said that the three main natural rights are the right to life, liberty, and property.
According to this view, every person, rich or poor, strong or weak, has these rights from birth, and they should be protected at all costs.
On the other hand, human rights are rights that are officially recognized and protected by national laws and international organizations.
They are defined in documents like the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), which was adopted by the United Nations in 1948 after World War II.
Human rights include the right to education, health care, work, food, shelter, and freedom of speech.
These rights are not just based on nature or philosophy, but they are created and enforced by governments and international bodies.
They are written in constitutions, laws, and global agreements so that people can demand them and receive legal protection. BPYE 142 Free Solved Assignment
The main difference between natural rights and human rights is their origin.
Natural rights come from nature, human reason, or God — they are not made by humans or governments. They are moral and philosophical.
Human rights, in contrast, are man-made rights that are written down and protected through laws, policies, and treaties. Another difference is in enforcement.
Natural rights exist whether or not there is a government to protect them, but they cannot be legally demanded unless a government accepts them.
Human rights, however, can be legally claimed in courts and are protected by national and international law.
One more difference is that natural rights are often seen as unchanging and eternal, while human rights can change or grow over time depending on the needs of society.
For example, in the past, people didn’t talk about the right to internet access, but today it is being discussed as a modern human right.
This shows how human rights can adapt with time, but natural rights remain constant. BPYE 142 Free Solved Assignment
Despite their differences, natural rights and human rights are closely connected. In fact, many human rights are based on the idea of natural rights.
The belief that all people are born free and equal, and deserve to live in dignity, comes from natural law.
Human rights give practical shape and legal support to these natural ideas.
For example, the right to life is a natural right, and when the law says no one can be killed without a fair trial, it is protecting that right as a human right.
c) What are the various types of justice?
Ans. Justice means fairness, equality, and doing what is right for everyone in society.
It ensures that people are treated fairly and with respect, regardless of their background. BPYE 142 Free Solved Assignment
In any society, justice plays an important role in maintaining peace and order.
However, justice is not just one thing — it has different types, and each type focuses on a different aspect of fairness.
The main types of justice are distributive justice, procedural justice, retributive justice, and restorative justice.
Distributive justice is about the fair distribution of resources and wealth in society.
It focuses on how things like money, property, education, jobs, and healthcare should be shared.
This type of justice asks questions like: Who deserves what? Should people who work harder get more, or should everyone get an equal share? Distributive justice tries to reduce the gap between the rich and poor, ensuring that everyone gets a fair chance to live a good life.
Procedural justice is about fairness in the processes or rules that are followed while making decisions. It is not just the outcome that matters, but also how the decision is made.
For example, in a court case, both sides should be heard properly, the judge should be neutral, and the rules must be followed.
If the process is fair, people are more likely to trust the decision, even if they don’t agree with it. BPYE 142 Free Solved Assignment
Procedural justice builds public trust in systems like the police, government, or legal courts.
Retributive justice is related to punishment. It is based on the idea that if someone commits a crime, they should be punished in a fair and equal way.
The main goal here is to maintain law and order by making sure that wrongdoers face consequences for their actions.
Retributive justice follows the principle of “an eye for an eye,” but it must be fair and not cruel. The punishment should match the seriousness of the crime.
Restorative justice, on the other hand, focuses more on healing than punishment. It tries to repair the harm caused by a crime or wrongdoing.
Instead of just punishing the offender, restorative justice encourages dialogue between the victim and the wrongdoer.
The goal is to help the victim recover, and to help the wrongdoer understand their mistake and make things right.
This kind of justice is often used in schools and communities to solve conflicts peacefully.
f) Write a note on Civil Liberty.
Ans. Civil liberty means the basic rights and freedoms that protect individuals from unfair treatment by the government or authorities.
These liberties allow people to live freely, express themselves, and enjoy a life with dignity. BPYE 142 Free Solved Assignment
Civil liberties are essential for a democratic society because they ensure that every person has the right to speak, think, believe, and act without fear — as long as they don’t harm others.
Some important civil liberties include the freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom of assembly, the right to privacy, and the right to a fair trial.
These rights are usually protected by a country’s constitution and laws.
In India, civil liberties are guaranteed under the Fundamental Rights in the Constitution, such as Article 19, which gives freedom of expression, and Article 21, which protects the right to life and personal liberty.
Civil liberty is not about doing whatever one wants — it is about enjoying freedom while respecting the rights of others and following the law.
In short, civil liberty protects individuals from abuse of power and helps create a fair, free, and just society. BPYE 142 Free Solved Assignment
Civil liberty refers to the basic freedoms and rights that every individual has in a democratic society.
These are the freedoms that protect people from unfair control, misuse of power, or interference by the government or any authority.
Civil liberties ensure that citizens can live with dignity, express their views, follow their religion, and make personal choices without fear.
They form the foundation of a free and just society, where everyone is treated equally under the law.
Some of the key civil liberties include the freedom of speech and expression, freedom of religion, freedom of movement, freedom to assemble peacefully, freedom to form associations, and the right to a fair trial.
These rights allow people to voice their opinions, protest peacefully, follow their own beliefs, and defend themselves in court.
Civil liberties also include the right to privacy, which means the government cannot unnecessarily interfere in a person’s private life.
In a democracy like India, civil liberties are protected by the Constitution. They are mainly found in the Fundamental Rights listed from Article 12 to 35.
For example, Article 19 gives citizens the freedom of speech, expression, and association, while Article 21 guarantees the right to life and personal liberty.
These articles ensure that people are free to live, work, and express themselves within the limits of the law. BPYE 142 Free Solved Assignment
However, civil liberty does not mean people can do anything they want without rules.
These freedoms come with reasonable restrictions to protect the rights of others and to maintain public order, morality, and national security.
For example, freedom of speech does not mean one can spread hate or violence. So, while citizens enjoy their rights, they must also act responsibly.
Civil liberty plays a vital role in strengthening democracy. It keeps the power of the government in check and protects the individual from oppression.
If civil liberties are denied or taken away, people lose their freedom, and democracy begins to weaken.
That is why in any free country, civil liberties must be respected, preserved, and updated as society changes.
Q 5. Write a short note on any five of the followings in about 100 words each.
a) Marx idea of Historical Materialism
Ans. Karl Marx’s idea of Historical Materialism is a theory that explains how human society changes and develops over time. BPYE 142 Free Solved Assignment
According to Marx, the main driving force behind all historical development is material conditions, especially the way people produce and distribute goods.
In simple words, the way people earn their living — through agriculture, industry, or trade — shapes everything else in society, such as politics, culture, religion, and laws.
Marx believed that history is not shaped by ideas alone, but by real-life economic activities.
He divided history into different stages like primitive communism, slavery, feudalism, capitalism, and, eventually, communism.
Each of these stages is based on a particular way of producing things, which he called the mode of production.
In every stage, there are two main groups: one that owns the means of production (like land, factories, machines), and another that works for them.
This creates a conflict or struggle between the classes, such as between lords and peasants in feudalism, or capitalists and workers in capitalism.
This class struggle, according to Marx, is what moves history forward.
For example, under capitalism, the rich class (called the bourgeoisie) controls industries and earns profits, while the working class (called the proletariat) sells their labor for wages. BPYE 142 Free Solved Assignment
Over time, workers become more aware of their exploitation and unite to demand change.
Marx believed that this would eventually lead to a revolution, where the working class would overthrow the capitalist system and establish a classless, equal society — communism.
b) Right to Privacy
Ans. Right to Privacy is the right of a person to keep their personal life, choices, and information safe from others, including the government, organizations, and strangers.
It means that everyone has the freedom to make decisions about their own life, body, family, and communication without unwanted interference.
This right protects people from being watched, judged, or disturbed in their private matters.
In a democracy like India, the Right to Privacy has been recognized as a part of the Right to Life and Personal Liberty under Article 21 of the Indian Constitution.
In the 2017 landmark judgment by the Supreme Court in the case of Justice K.S.
Puttaswamy vs Union of India, the Right to Privacy was declared a Fundamental Right. BPYE 142 Free Solved Assignment
This means it is now legally protected and must be respected by the government and all others.
The Right to Privacy covers many areas such as personal data, health records, phone calls, messages, internet usage, home life, and private relationships.
For example, no one can check your phone or read your messages without your permission.
Similarly, your medical records and personal information should not be shared without your consent.
However, like all rights, the Right to Privacy is not absolute.
It can be limited in some cases — like during a police investigation or for national security — but only through legal procedures and with proper justification.
c) Social Discrimination
Ans. Social discrimination means treating people unfairly or unequally based on their identity, such as caste, religion, race, gender, class, or language.
It happens when certain groups in society are looked down upon or denied equal rights, respect, and opportunities. BPYE 142 Free Solved Assignment
Social discrimination creates injustice, division, and inequality, and often leads to the suffering of individuals who are already weak or poor.
In countries like India, social discrimination has existed for a long time, especially in the form of caste-based discrimination.
People from lower castes, especially Dalits, have been denied access to education, temples, public wells, and even equal treatment.
Discrimination also affects women, religious minorities, tribal people, and those from poor backgrounds.
They often face barriers in jobs, education, housing, and even in public behavior.
For example, a girl might be denied the right to study because of her gender, or someone might not be allowed to rent a house because of their religion or caste.
Social discrimination is not just about laws — it’s about people’s attitudes and behavior. BPYE 142 Free Solved Assignment
Even if the constitution gives equal rights to all, discrimination continues in daily life due to prejudice, ignorance, and social habits.
This is why education, awareness, and strict law enforcement are important to stop it.
The Indian Constitution promises equality before the law and bans discrimination under Article 15 and Article 17, which even abolishes untouchability.
But ending social discrimination is not just the job of the government — every citizen must treat others with dignity and fairness.
d) Individualism
Ans. Individualism is the belief that each person is important and should have the freedom to think, act, and live according to their own choices.
It focuses on the rights, dignity, and independence of the individual.
In an individualistic society, people are encouraged to express their personal views, follow their dreams, and take responsibility for their own life without being forced to follow the crowd or society’s pressure.
Individualism believes that every person is unique and has the right to develop their own identity, values, and goals. BPYE 142 Free Solved Assignment
It promotes personal freedom, self-reliance, and creativity.
People who follow individualism often believe that happiness and progress begin when individuals are free to make their own decisions — whether in career, relationships, religion, or lifestyle.
This idea is deeply connected with democracy and human rights, where each person is treated equally and is free to express themselves.
It supports freedom of speech, freedom of belief, and the right to privacy.
Individualism also respects differences, because it accepts that not everyone will think or live the same way — and that’s okay.
However, individualism does not mean being selfish or ignoring society. A good individualist respects others’ rights while enjoying their own freedom.
It encourages people to think independently but also act responsibly, without harming others.
In countries like the United States and parts of Europe, individualism is a strong cultural value.
In India, although society is more community-based, individualism is growing, especially among the youth who seek personal freedom and identity.
f) Natural Rights
Ans. Natural rights are the basic rights that every human being is born with.
These rights are called “natural” because they do not come from any law, government, or authority — they come simply from being human.
No one gives them to us, and no one has the right to take them away.
Think of them as universal rights that belong to all people, everywhere, regardless of their nationality, religion, or background.
Some of the most important natural rights include the right to life, right to liberty (freedom), and the right to own property.
These were clearly discussed by philosophers like John Locke, who believed that governments should protect these rights.
According to Locke, the main purpose of forming a government is to keep people’s natural rights safe. BPYE 142 Free Solved Assignment
If a government fails to do so, people have the right to change it.
Natural rights form the foundation of many modern democracies. In countries like India, these ideas are reflected in the Fundamental Rights given in the Constitution.
For example, Article 21, which guarantees the right to life and personal liberty, is directly connected to the idea of natural rights.
What makes natural rights so powerful is that they apply to everyone equally.
Whether a person is rich or poor, educated or uneducated, these rights remain the same. They promote dignity, freedom, and justice for all people.
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