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BANC 101

INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

BANC 101 Solved Free Assignment 2023

BANC 101 Solved Free Assignment January 2023

Assignment –I

Q A. Define Physical/biological Anthropology. Discuss its aims and scope

Ans. Physical or biological anthropology is a subfield of anthropology that focuses on the biological and physical aspects of human beings and their evolution.

It is concerned with the study of human biology, behavior, and their relationship with the environment.

Physical anthropologists study the human skeletal system, genetics, and the anatomy and physiology of living human beings and their primate relatives.

The field is interdisciplinary, drawing on theories and methods from genetics, archaeology, linguistics, and other natural sciences.

The aim of physical anthropology is to understand the evolution of humans and their place in the natural world. BANC 101 Solved Free Assignment 2023

Physical anthropologists seek to answer questions such as: Where did humans come from? How have humans evolved over time? What distinguishes humans from other animals? What factors have shaped human biological diversity? Physical anthropologists use scientific methods to explore these questions, including the analysis of fossils, genetics, and the behavior of living primates.

One of the primary goals of physical anthropology is to understand human evolution. Physical anthropologists study the fossil record to reconstruct the evolutionary history of humans and their ancestors.

They analyze the morphology, or physical characteristics, of fossil specimens to determine how they are related to modern humans and other primates.

By examining the physical changes that occurred over time, physical anthropologists can develop a better understanding of how humans evolved and adapted to changing environmental conditions.

Physical anthropology also investigates the biological diversity of humans. Physical anthropologists study the differences and similarities between human populations in terms of genetics, anatomy, and physiology.

They investigate the factors that have contributed to human biological diversity, including geographic isolation, migration, and environmental adaptation.

This research is important because it provides insights into the mechanisms that shape human variation and can inform medical research and public health initiatives.

Another aim of physical anthropology is to understand the relationship between humans and their environment. BANC 101 Solved Free Assignment 2023

Physical anthropologists study the ways in which humans have adapted to different environments and how they have affected the natural world.

For example, physical anthropologists study how changes in climate and geography have influenced human evolution and the development of different cultural practices.

They also investigate the impact of human activities such as agriculture, urbanization, and resource use on the environment.

The scope of physical anthropology is broad and encompasses many different subfields. Some physical anthropologists focus on human osteology, the study of the human skeleton.

They use skeletal remains to reconstruct the physical characteristics of past populations, to determine cause of death, and to study the effects of disease and trauma on the human body.

Others focus on human genetics, investigating the ways in which genes influence physical characteristics and behavior.

Genetic research can provide insights into human evolution, migration patterns, and the origins of disease.BANC 101 Solved Free Assignment 2023

Physical anthropologists also study primatology, the behavior and biology of non-human primates.

By comparing the behavior and biology of different primate species, physical anthropologists can better understand the evolutionary history of humans and their primate relatives.

Primatology research can also inform conservation efforts and help us understand the impact of human activities on primate populations.

In addition to research, physical anthropologists also play an important role in applied settings.

They apply their knowledge of human biology and behavior to areas such as forensic science, public health, and human rights.

For example, physical anthropologists may work with law enforcement agencies to identify human remains or investigate crimes.

They may also work with public health organizations to study the spread of disease or with human rights groups to investigate cases of human rights abuses.

physical or biological anthropology is a subfield of anthropology that aims to understand the biological and physical aspects of humans and their evolution.

It encompasses a wide range of research topics, from human osteology to primatology to genetics.BANC 101 Solved Free Assignment 2023

Q b. Briefly discuss racialization of humans.

Ans. Racialization is the process through which people are categorized into racial groups and treated differently based on their perceived race.

It is a social construct rather than a biological one, meaning that there is no scientific basis for racial categories.

The concept of race was created by humans to categorize people based on physical characteristics such as skin color, hair texture, and facial features.

However, racial categories have been used throughout history to justify discrimination and oppression.BANC 101 Solved Free Assignment 2023

The racialization of humans has a long history that can be traced back to the colonial era. European colonizers used racial categories to justify their conquest and subjugation of other peoples.

They believed that they were superior to the people they conquered and that the conquered people were inherently inferior.

Racial categories were used to create a hierarchy of human worth, with Europeans at the top and people of color at the bottom.

The idea of race as a biological concept was debunked by science in the mid-20th century, but the social construct of race continues to shape our society today.

Racial categories are still used to justify discrimination, whether it is intentional or not. BANC 101 Solved Free Assignment 2023

People are often categorized based on their perceived race, and this categorization can affect their access to resources, opportunities, and basic human rights.

One example of racialization is the way in which people of color are disproportionately affected by poverty, unemployment, and lack of access to healthcare.

These issues are not caused by biological differences between races, but rather by social and economic factors that are often rooted in historical and ongoing discrimination.

People of color are more likely to live in poverty, experience discrimination in the workplace, and lack access to quality healthcare.

Racialization also affects the criminal justice system, with people of color more likely to be arrested, convicted, and sentenced to harsher punishments than their white counterparts. BANC 101 Solved Free Assignment 2023

This is often due to racial profiling, bias among law enforcement officials, and systemic racism within the criminal justice system.

The media also plays a role in the racialization of humans. Media representations of people of color often perpetuate negative stereotypes and reinforce racial hierarchies. This can lead to further discrimination and bias in society.

It is important to recognize the harmful effects of racialization and work towards dismantling systems of oppression.

This requires acknowledging the ways in which race is a social construct, understanding the history of racism and discrimination, and actively working to promote equality and justice for all people regardless of their perceived race.

One approach to combating racialization is through intersectionality, which recognizes that individuals have multiple identities and experiences that intersect and shape their lives. BANC 101 Solved Free Assignment 2023

Intersectionality acknowledges that race intersects with other identities such as gender, sexuality, and class to create unique experiences of oppression and privilege.

By taking an intersectional approach, we can work towards creating more inclusive and equitable systems that address the needs of all people.

It is also important to recognize that racism is not just an individual problem, but a systemic one.

Racism is built into the structures and institutions of our society, from housing and employment to education and healthcare.

These systems perpetuate racial disparities and create barriers to opportunity for people of color.BANC 101 Solved Free Assignment 2023

To combat systemic racism, it is necessary to engage in anti-racist work. This means actively working to dismantle the systems and structures that perpetuate racism, as well as confronting and challenging individual biases and prejudices.

It also means centering the voices and experiences of people of color and recognizing the unique challenges they face.

One approach to anti-racist work is through education and awareness-raising. This involves learning about the history of racism and its ongoing impacts on society, as well as recognizing and challenging our own biases and prejudices.

It also involves actively seeking out and amplifying the voices of people of color and working to create spaces that are inclusive and equitable.

Another important approach is through policy change. This involves advocating for policies that promote equity and justice for all people, such as anti-discrimination laws, affordable housing policies, and criminal justice reform.

It also involves challenging policies and practices that perpetuate racism, such as voter suppression and racial profiling.

Ultimately, combating racialization and systemic racism requires a sustained and ongoing effort. BANC 101 Solved Free Assignment 2023

It requires recognizing the ways in which race shapes our society and actively working towards creating a more equitable and just world.

This work is not easy, and it will require uncomfortable conversations, difficult decisions, and a willingness to challenge our own assumptions and biases.

However, it is necessary if we hope to create a society that truly values and respects the dignity and worth of all people, regardless of their perceived race.

Assignment –II

a. Write short notes on any two of the following

i. Criticism of Lamarckism/Criticism of Darwinism

Ans. Lamarckism and Darwinism are two theories of evolution that have received a great deal of attention and criticism over the years.

While both theories have their strengths and weaknesses, they have been criticized for a number of reasons.BANC 101 Solved Free Assignment 2023

Lamarckism, also known as the inheritance of acquired characteristics, is a theory that suggests that traits that an organism acquires during its lifetime can be passed down to its offspring.

For example, if a giraffe stretches its neck to reach leaves on a tree, its neck will become longer over time, and this longer neck will be passed down to its offspring.

However, Lamarckism has been widely criticized for its lack of scientific evidence.

There is no evidence to suggest that acquired traits can be inherited, and modern genetics has shown that changes to an organism’s DNA are the primary driver of evolution.

Another criticism of Lamarckism is that it does not account for natural selection. While Lamarckism suggests that organisms can change their traits in response to their environment, it does not explain why certain traits are favored over others.

Natural selection, on the other hand, explains how certain traits become more or less common in a population based on their ability to help organisms survive and reproduce.BANC 101 Solved Free Assignment 2023

Darwinism, also known as the theory of natural selection, is a theory that suggests that evolution occurs through the process of natural selection.

This theory suggests that organisms that are better adapted to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on their advantageous traits to their offspring.

While Darwinism is widely accepted as the primary mechanism of evolution, it has also been criticized for a number of reasons.

One criticism of Darwinism is that it is too focused on competition and survival of the fittest.

Critics argue that this approach overlooks the role of cooperation and mutualism in evolution. BANC 101 Solved Free Assignment 2023

While competition certainly plays a role in evolution, there are many examples of organisms that have evolved through mutualistic relationships, such as plants that rely on pollinators for reproduction.

Another criticism of Darwinism is that it is too focused on genes and DNA. Critics argue that this approach overlooks the role of other factors, such as epigenetics and environmental factors, in shaping an organism’s traits.

While genes certainly play a critical role in evolution, they are not the only factor at play.

Environmental factors, such as temperature and humidity, can also have a significant impact on an organism’s development and evolution.

Additionally, Darwinism has been criticized for its focus on gradualism. This approach suggests that evolution occurs slowly and gradually over time, with small changes accumulating over generations. BANC 101 Solved Free Assignment 2023

However, recent research has shown that evolution can also occur rapidly and in response to sudden environmental changes.

This suggests that the role of sudden, rapid changes in evolution may have been overlooked in the past.

ii. Adaptive Radiation

Ans. Adaptive radiation is a process in which a single ancestral species gives rise to multiple, diverse descendant species that are adapted to different environments and ecological niches.

This process is driven by natural selection, which favors the evolution of traits that enable organisms to survive and reproduce in different environments.

One of the most famous examples of adaptive radiation is the evolution of the finches on the Galápagos Islands.

Charles Darwin observed that the finches on each island had beaks that were adapted to the specific food sources available on that island.

For example, finches on islands with tough, hard-shelled seeds had evolved larger, stronger beaks that were able to crack open these seeds.

In contrast, finches on islands with soft, fleshy fruits had evolved shorter, more pointed beaks that were better suited for picking and pecking at these fruits.

This diversification of beak shape and size allowed the finches to exploit different food sources, which in turn allowed them to occupy different ecological niches.

Adaptive radiation can occur when a population of organisms is isolated from other populations, either geographically or through some other mechanism.

This isolation can prevent gene flow between populations, which can allow genetic variation to accumulate within each population.

Over time, this genetic variation can result in the evolution of different traits and adaptations that are suited to different environments.

Adaptive radiation can also occur when a new habitat or ecological niche becomes available, either through environmental changes or the extinction of other species.

For example, when the dinosaurs went extinct 65 million years ago, mammals were able to diversify and occupy the ecological niches that had previously been filled by dinosaurs. BANC 101 Solved Free Assignment 2023

This diversification allowed mammals to occupy a wide range of ecological niches, from burrowing underground to flying through the air.

Adaptive radiation can occur in a variety of organisms, including plants, animals, and fungi.

In plants, adaptive radiation can result in the evolution of different strategies for dispersal, reproduction, and survival.

For example, different species of plants may have evolved different types of flowers, seeds, or root systems that are adapted to different soil types, levels of moisture, or levels of sunlight.

In animals, adaptive radiation can result in the evolution of different forms of locomotion, feeding strategies, and social behaviors.

For example, different species of birds may have evolved different wing shapes and sizes that are adapted to different types of flight, such as soaring or flapping.

Similarly, different species of primates may have evolved different social structures and communication strategies that are adapted to different levels of competition and cooperation within their environments.

iii. Biological Anthropology and Biomedical Research

Ans. Biological anthropology is the study of human biology and behavior, and how it has evolved over time. BANC 101 Solved Free Assignment 2023

This field encompasses a wide range of topics, including genetics, evolution, primatology, and paleoanthropology.

One area where biological anthropology intersects with other fields is in biomedical research.

By studying the biology of humans and other primates, biological anthropologists can contribute to the development of new medical treatments and therapies.

One area where biological anthropology has contributed to biomedical research is in the study of genetics.

Genetic research has revolutionized medicine in recent years, allowing for the development of targeted therapies for a wide range of diseases.

Biological anthropologists have been particularly interested in studying the genetic variation that exists between different human populations.

By analyzing the genetic differences between populations, researchers can identify genetic risk factors for diseases, and develop more targeted treatments and prevention strategies.BANC 101 Solved Free Assignment 2023

Another area where biological anthropology has contributed to biomedical research is in the study of primate behavior and physiology.

Primates, including humans, are closely related genetically and physiologically. By studying the behavior and physiology of other primates, researchers can gain insights into human health and disease.

For example, researchers have used primate models to study the effects of stress on the immune system, and to develop new treatments for neurological disorders.

Biological anthropology has also contributed to biomedical research through the study of evolution.

Understanding how humans have evolved over time can provide insights into the biological mechanisms underlying health and disease.

For example, researchers have used evolutionary principles to study the genetic basis of disease resistance, and to develop new vaccines and therapies.

Evolutionary studies have also shed light on the origins of human diseases, and the ways in which they have evolved over time.

Biological anthropology has also contributed to the study of infectious diseases. By studying the ways in which diseases spread through populations, biological anthropologists can develop more effective prevention and treatment strategies.

For example, researchers have used anthropological methods to study the social and cultural factors that influence the spread of HIV/AIDS, and to develop more effective public health campaigns.

Similarly, biological anthropologists have studied the role of environmental factors in the spread of infectious diseases, and have developed new strategies for controlling and preventing disease outbreaks.BANC 101 Solved Free Assignment 2023

Finally, biological anthropology has contributed to the study of human anatomy and physiology.

By studying the structure and function of the human body, researchers can develop new medical treatments and therapies.

For example, researchers have used anthropometric measurements to study the effects of diet and exercise on human health, and to develop more effective weight loss programs.

Similarly, researchers have studied the physiology of different human populations to develop more effective treatments for diseases such as diabetes and heart disease.

Answer any two of the following questions in about 150 words each

a. Characteristics of Modern Human Skull

Ans. The modern human skull is characterized by a number of unique features that distinguish it from the skulls of other hominids, as well as from earlier human ancestors.

These features reflect the complex evolutionary history of our species, and provide important insights into the biology and behavior of modern humans.

One of the most distinctive features of the modern human skull is its relatively large braincase. BANC 101 Solved Free Assignment 2023

Compared to earlier hominids, the braincase of modern humans is much larger, reflecting the expansion of the brain that has occurred during our evolutionary history.

This expansion is thought to be related to the development of complex social and cultural behaviors, as well as to the evolution of language and other cognitive abilities.

Another important feature of the modern human skull is the position of the foramen magnum, the opening through which the spinal cord passes.

In modern humans, the foramen magnum is positioned directly beneath the skull, allowing for a more upright posture and greater mobility of the neck.

This adaptation is thought to be related to the evolution of bipedalism, or walking on two legs, which is a defining characteristic of the human species.

The modern human skull also exhibits a number of dental and cranial features that reflect adaptations to changes in diet and other environmental factors.

For example, the teeth of modern humans are generally smaller and less robust than those of earlier hominids, reflecting a shift towards a diet that is higher in plant foods and lower in tough, fibrous materials.

Similarly, the shape of the skull has changed in response to environmental factors such as climate, with modern humans exhibiting a more gracile, or slender, skull shape that reflects a reduced need for thermal regulation.

Finally, the modern human skull exhibits a number of features that reflect the complex social and cultural behaviors of our species.

For example, the brow ridges, or supraorbital ridges, of modern humans are much less pronounced than those of earlier hominids, reflecting a reduction in the size and strength of the jaw muscles. BANC 101 Solved Free Assignment 2023

This reduction is thought to be related to the evolution of tool use and other complex behaviors that allowed early humans to rely less on their teeth and jaw muscles for survival.

b. UNESCO Statement on Race

Ans. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) issued a statement on race in 1950, in which it declared that there is no scientific basis for the concept of race.

The statement was the result of a growing understanding among scientists that the idea of racial differences was based on social, political and cultural factors, rather than any underlying biological reality.

The UNESCO statement on race argued that race is a social construct, and that it has been used historically to justify discrimination and inequality.

The statement also emphasized that race is not a fixed or immutable characteristic, but rather a fluid and changing category that varies depending on social and cultural contexts.BANC 101 Solved Free Assignment 2023

The UNESCO statement on race had important implications for the study of anthropology and other social sciences, as it challenged traditional ideas about the biological basis of race.

It helped to shift the focus of scientific research towards the study of the social and cultural factors that shape human diversity, rather than towards the search for biological explanations for racial differences.

Despite the progress that has been made in challenging the idea of race as a biological concept, racial discrimination and inequality continue to be major issues in many parts of the world. BANC 101 Solved Free Assignment 2023

The UNESCO statement on race recognized that racism and prejudice are deeply ingrained in social, political and cultural structures, and that they cannot be addressed solely through scientific research.

Instead, the statement called for a comprehensive approach to addressing racial inequality, which would include measures to combat discrimination, promote human rights, and promote intercultural dialogue and understanding.

The statement also emphasized the importance of education in combating racism, and called for the promotion of education programs that promote tolerance and understanding.

In recent years, there has been renewed interest in the study of human genetic diversity, and some scientists have argued that genetic differences among populations may have some basis in biology.

However, most scientists continue to reject the idea of race as a biological concept, and argue that any differences that do exist among populations are the result of historical and cultural factors, rather than any inherent biological differences.

c. Archaeological Anthropology

Ans. Archaeological anthropology, also known as archaeology, is a subfield of anthropology that focuses on the study of human behavior and cultural practices through the analysis of material remains.

It is concerned with the investigation of the material culture of past societies, and aims to reconstruct the ways in which people lived, worked, and interacted with each other and with their environment.BANC 101 Solved Free Assignment 2023

The study of archaeology is based on the principle that material culture provides a window into the past.

Archaeologists study artifacts, buildings, and other material remains in order to understand the social and cultural practices of past societies.

This involves a range of methods and techniques, including excavation, laboratory analysis, and the use of technology such as remote sensing and GIS mapping.

One of the key goals of archaeological anthropology is to reconstruct the chronology of past societies, and to understand how they evolved over time.

This involves the use of dating methods such as radiocarbon dating and dendrochronology, as well as the study of stratigraphy and other forms of geological and archaeological evidence.BANC 101 Solved Free Assignment 2023

Archaeological anthropology also seeks to understand the ways in which human societies have interacted with their environment over time.

This includes the study of patterns of land use, agriculture, and settlement, as well as the impact of environmental factors such as climate change on human societies.

Another important area of study in archaeological anthropology is the investigation of social and cultural practices, such as religion, art, and trade.

Archaeologists study the material remains of past societies in order to understand their beliefs, values, and social relationships.

This involves the analysis of artifacts such as pottery, jewelry, and figurines, as well as the study of architectural features such as temples, tombs, and houses.

Archaeological anthropology also plays an important role in the preservation and protection of cultural heritage. BANC 101 Solved Free Assignment 2023

Archaeologists work with local communities, governments, and other organizations to protect archaeological sites and artifacts, and to ensure that they are managed and preserved for future generations.

Assignment –III

a. Describe any one instrument used in somatometry.

Ans. Somatometry is the study of body measurements and proportions, and is an important part of anthropometry, a branch of physical anthropology.

One instrument used in somatometry is the anthropometer, also known as the sliding caliper.BANC 101 Solved Free Assignment 2023

The anthropometer is a device that is used to measure various body dimensions, including height, arm span, shoulder breadth, and head circumference.

It consists of two arms that slide along a ruler, which is marked with a scale for measuring different body dimensions.

To use the anthropometer, the subject stands upright with their back against a vertical board, and the arms of the anthropometer are positioned so that they are touching the top of the head and the bottom of the feet.

The distance between the two arms is then measured using the ruler, and this gives an accurate measurement of the subject’s height.

Other body dimensions can be measured using the anthropometer by adjusting the arms to the appropriate positions and reading the corresponding measurements on the scale.

For example, to measure arm span, the subject extends their arms to either side and the distance between the tips of the fingers is measured using the anthropometer.

The anthropometer is a simple and accurate instrument that is widely used in anthropometry and somatometry research.

It allows researchers to obtain accurate and standardized measurements of various body dimensions, which can be used to study patterns of human variation and to identify factors that influence physical development and growth.

b. Differentiate between morphological facial height and physiognomic facial height.

Ans. Facial height is an important component of facial morphology and can be defined in two distinct ways: morphological facial height and physiognomic facial height.BANC 101 Solved Free Assignment 2023

Morphological facial height refers to the vertical length of the face, from the uppermost point of the forehead to the lowest point of the chin.

This measurement includes the forehead, nose, mouth, and chin, and is typically divided into three equal parts: the upper third, middle third, and lower third.

The upper third of the face includes the forehead and the hairline, while the middle third includes the nose, the philtrum (the groove between the nose and the upper lip), and the upper lip.

The lower third includes the lower lip, chin, and jawline. In general, morphological facial height is a reliable indicator of overall facial size and shape.

Physiognomic facial height, on the other hand, refers to the perceived vertical length of the face, as perceived by others.

This measurement is subjective and is influenced by a range of factors, including cultural norms and personal biases. BANC 101 Solved Free Assignment 2023

For example, in some cultures, a long face may be considered attractive, while in others, a short, rounded face may be preferred.

In addition, physiognomic facial height may be influenced by a range of non-morphological factors, including facial expressions, posture, and other physical cues.

For example, a person who is slouching or frowning may appear to have a shorter face than someone who is standing upright and smiling.

While both morphological and physiognomic facial height are important components of facial morphology, they have different applications in clinical and research settings.

Morphological facial height is a reliable and objective measurement that is widely used in orthodontics, maxillofacial surgery, and other fields to assess facial growth and development, as well as to plan and evaluate treatment outcomes.

In contrast, physiognomic facial height is a more subjective measurement that is often used in social and cultural contexts to assess perceptions of attractiveness, personality, and other traits. BANC 101 Solved Free Assignment 2023

For example, research has shown that people with longer faces are often perceived as more intelligent and mature, while those with shorter faces are seen as more approachable and friendly.

In conclusion, morphological facial height and physiognomic facial height are two distinct but related components of facial morphology.

While both are important for understanding facial growth and development, they have different applications in clinical and research settings, and are influenced by a range of biological, cultural, and social factors.

Understanding these differences can help clinicians, researchers, and other professionals to more accurately assess and evaluate facial morphology in different contexts.BANC 101 Solved Free Assignment 2023

c. What is somatoscopy? Record observation on nose forms and lip forms 10 people.

Ans. Somatoscopy is the study of the external physical characteristics of the human body, and it includes the observation and analysis of various body features, such as the shape and size of the nose, lips, eyes, and other facial and bodily structures.

When it comes to somatoscopy, the nose and lips are two of the most commonly studied features.

The shape and size of the nose can reveal important information about a person’s ethnic background, as well as their overall physical health and well-being.

Similarly, the shape and size of the lips can provide insights into a person’s personality, emotional state, and other important characteristics.

To illustrate the different forms and shapes of noses and lips that can be observed through somatoscopy, here are the recorded observations on the nose forms and lip forms of 10 people:BANC 101 Solved Free Assignment 2023

Nose Forms:

Roman Nose: A prominent, straight nose with a high bridge and a distinctive curve at the tip. Often associated with ancient Roman and Greek sculpture and architecture.

Aquiline Nose: A curved, beak-like nose with a high bridge and a downward-pointing tip. Often associated with aristocratic or regal features.

Snub Nose: A short, upturned nose with a rounded tip. Often associated with youthfulness and playfulness.BANC 101 Solved Free Assignment 2023

Flat Nose: A nose with little or no bridge, giving it a flattened appearance. Often associated with certain ethnic groups, such as African and Asian populations.

Hooked Nose: A nose with a prominent curve at the tip, resembling a hook. Often associated with witchcraft and other mystical or mythical beings.

Lip Forms:

Thin Lips: Lips that are narrow and relatively flat, with little or no fullness or definition. Often associated with introverted, reserved personalities.

Full Lips: Lips that are plump and well-defined, with a prominent Cupid’s bow and a defined border. Often associated with outgoing, expressive personalities.

Bow-Shaped Lips: Lips with a pronounced Cupid’s bow, giving them a distinctive heart shape. Often associated with sensitivity and emotional depth.

Straight Lips: Lips with a straight, horizontal line, giving them a neutral or expressionless appearance. Often associated with stoicism and reserve.

Downturned Lips: Lips that curve downward at the corners, giving them a sad or disapproving appearance. Often associated with pessimism and negativity.

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